The article is devoted to the 480th anniversary of the publication of Andreas Vesalius’s “De humani corporis fabrica libri septem” and considers its biographical, historical, cultural contexts. The authors compare the results of Andreas Vesalius' investigation to other anatomical studies in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, presenting Vesalius’s work as the creation of a new European scientific approach in anatomy, identical to a research experiment in physics. It is demonstrated the significance of the dissection method in the form proposed  by  Andreas  Vesalius  for  modern  anatomy  and  medicine.  The  principal work of Andreas Vesalius is considered as the most important source of anatomical vocabulary, which is the prototype of international anatomical nomenclature. The biographical and historical issues presented by the authors allow modern readers to reveal the meanings of Andreus Vesalius’s paper, the original meaning of which was lost with all the time that has passed. The results of modern studies investigating the work of the great Flemish anatomist, little known to the Russian reader, are presented.

Based on studies on the effect of SARS-CoV-2 on tissues, not only pulmonary invasion but an impaired testicular function also were revealed. In single studies on small samples of patients, an increase in the number  of  apoptotic  cells,  CD138+  plasma  cells,  CD3+  T-lymphocytes,  CD20+  B-lymphocytes,  CD68+  macrophages in the interstitial tissue was found. However, a comprehensive morphological and immunohistochemical study has not been performed on a significant cohort of patients. Thus, the study of the mechanisms of influence of SARS-CoV-2 on spermatogenesis remains relevant.

The aim of the study was to carry out an immunohistochemical evaluation of spermatogenesis disorders in SARS-CoV-2 invasion.

Material and methods. For the first time, a cohort of COVID-19-positive patients was collected (n=69). The autopsy material was prepared for morphological, morphometric, and immunohistochemical analysis, and the index of spermatogenesis was calculated  to  assess  the degree of   hypospermatogenesis.  The invasion of SARS-CoV-2 was studied by immunohisto-chemical method with antibodies to the spike protein, the nucleocapsid protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, and angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE2).

Results. In the morphometric study of the testicles of patients with  COVID-19,  a  decrease  in  the  degree  of  spermatogenesis  was  observed.  Based  on  the  morphological  and morphometric analysis, as well as the decrease in the spermatogenesis index, it is highly likely that in patients with confirmed coronavirus infection over 45 years of age, the identified pathomorphological changes were more pronounced than in young people. An immunohistochemical study revealed S-protein- and nucleocapsid-positive germ cells, as well as an increase in the number of ACE2-positive germ cells, which indicates the invasion of SARS-CoV-2 into them. Conclusion. The immunophenotypic characteristics of the testicles of patients with a new coronavirus infection indicates the viral load of SARS-CoV-2, estimated by the amount of S-protein-, nucleocapsid-  and  ACE2-positive  germ  cells.  The  revealed  morphological  and  immunohistochemical  patterns  most likely indicates the development of COVID-19-associated orchitis.

Individual  resistance  to  hypoxia  largely  determines  the  severity  of  inflammatory  processes and, probably, can affect the regeneration of the skin wound.

The aim was to study reparative and inflammatory changes in the wound in Wistar rats with different resistance to hypoxia.

Material and methods. The study was performed on mature male Wistar rats weighing 300–350 g. Before the experiment, the resistance of animals to hypoxia was determined. Rats were classified as highly resistant to hypoxia (HR), in which the time to take a lateral position in the pressure chamber “at a height” of 11,500 m was more than 360 s (n=5), to low-resistant (LR) – less than 40 s (n=5). A full-thickness wound with a diameter of 16 mm was applied to the animals  in  the  interscapular zone of the back.  On  the  7th  day  after  the infliction of the wound, a histological and  morphometric study was performed. The proliferative activity of cells in the granulation tissue of the wound was determined  immunohistochemically using  the  Ki-67  marker.  Real-time  PCR  was used  to  evaluate  the  level  of expression of the Hif-1α, Nf-κB, and Vegf genes.

Results. It was shown that in rats with high resistance to hypoxia, the total number of cells and, among them, the number of inflammatory cells was higher than in rats with low resistance to hypoxia. However, the percentage of inflammatory cells in the compared groups did not differ significantly. Cell proliferative activity, as measured by the number of Ki-67 positive cells, was higher in rats with high resistance to hypoxia. In the granulation tissue of highly resistant to hypoxia rats, the expression of the Vegf gene was statistically significantly higher than in low-resistant animals, while there were no statistically significant differences in the level of expression of the Hif-1α, Nf-κB genes.

Conclusion. In rats with high resistance to hypoxia, on the 7th day of healing of a full-thickness skin wound, reparative processes in it are more pronounced. In  the  horizontal  layer  of  fibroblasts,  there  are  more  cells,  among  them  inflammatory  ones  -  histiocytes  and macrophages, which is combined with a higher number of proliferating Ki-67 positive cells and the expression level of vascular endothelial growth factor (Vegf).

The effect of exogenous and endogenous melatonin on GFAP and S-100 positive cells of the colon mucosa of rats kept under different lighting conditions was studied.

The aim was to estimate the effect of melatonin on the structural and functional characteristics of colon glial cells in normal conditions and in experimental  desynchronosis.

Material  and  methods.  The  study  was  conducted  on  laboratory  male  Wistar  rats (n=72), 2-months old, weighing 180–200 g, divided into 6 groups 12 rats in each. Group I consisted of animals treated in natural light conditions; Group II – rats treated in natural light conditions, receiving synthetic melatonin  (Melaxen,  Unipharm,  Inc.,  USA)  ad  libitum  at  a  concentration  of  4 mg/l  with  drinking water; Group III – animals treated in constant darkness; Group IV – animals treated in constant darkness and received melatonin; Group V consisted of animals treated under constant lighting conditions; Group VI included rats treated in constant lighting conditions and received melatonin. Astrocytes were identified using an indirect immunohistochemical method using polyclonal antibodies to glial fibrillary acidic protein (Dako, Germany 750 µg/ml) and protein S-100 (Spring Bio Science USA 1:300). Cells were counted using a Carl Zeiss Axio Scope A1 microscope at 400 magnification and SigmaScan Pro 5 software. Statistical processing was carried out using the MS Excel and Statistica 17 programs.

Results. The number of GFAP positive cells decreased in groups III and V. Conditions II and VI resulted in a decrease in the number of gliocytes. In group IV, the administration of melatonin led to an increase in the number of studied cells. A significant increase in the optical density of GFAP in colon gliocytes was observed only when rats were treated under constant lighting conditions. The number of S-100 positive cells decreased in groups III and II. Conditions V and IV led to an increase in the number of S-100 positive cells. The optical density of S-100 does not depend on photoperiod.

Conclusion. S-100B and GFAP positive glial cells of the colon respond both to changes in photoperiod and to the administration of exogenous melatonin. In particular, under constant dark conditions, the number of GFAP and S-100B positive cells decreases. The obtained data can be used in the elaboration of new therapeutic approaches to the treatment of intestinal diseases.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the structural and functional changes in the components of the respiratory department of the lungs during the stay of experimental animals in the conditions of the Far North.

Material and methods. The experiments were carried out on white outbred male rats 140–160 g by mass on the 7-, 15- and 30th days of stay in the conditions of northern latitudes – in Kogalym (62° 26′ N and 74° 48′ E). The structural components of the blood-air barrier were studied using light microscopy, transmission and scanning electron microscopy. The thickness of cytoplasmic processes of type I pneumocytes, cytoplasmic processes of endotheliocytes of capillaries and basement membranes was determined.

Results. During all periods of stay of animals in the conditions of the Far North, thickening of the cytoplasmic processes of type I pneumocytes was noted, while the thickness of the cytoplasmic processes of endotheliocytes was significantly increased on the 7th day (p<0,032) and reached control values by the 15th day. During these periods, interstitial edema of the walls and transudate exudation in the lumen of the alveoli, multivesicular and osmophilic lamellar bodies in the cytoplasm  of  type  II  pneumocytes  were  observed,  followed  by  surfactant  release  into  the  lumen  of  the   alveoli  according to the merocrine type. Later, in the conditions of the Far North, there was a tendency to decrease the main indicators of the blood-air barrier. There were single blood cells in the lumen of the alveoli, Kohn pores between the alveoli, and the merocrine type of surfactant release into the lumen of the alveoli was preserved in type II pneumocytes.

Conclusion. As a result of the research, it was established that in the early periods of the animals' stay in the conditions of the Far North, there is an increase in the main components of blood-air barrier (cytoplasmic  processes  of  type  I  pneumocytes,  basal  membranes  and  capillary  endotheliocytes).  In  the  early stages of animal adaptation, the phenomena of interstitial edema of the walls with transudation into their lumen are noted in individual alveoli. By the 30th day, there is a tendency to decrease the main indicators of the blood-air barrier compared to previous terms, but they do not reach the control values; the surfactant yield in the apical part of type II pneumocytes by the merocrine type is preserved.

The aim of the study was to comprehensively assess the indicators of physical development of adolescents subject to the assigned medical commission and young men subject to the military medical commission  living  in  the  Altai  Krai,  taking  into  account  their  motor  activity  by  the  index  method.

Material  and  methods. The study involved 1,186 young people of the Altai Krai aged 14–19 years. Among them there were 558 teenagers subject to the assigned medical commission and 628 young men subject to the military medical commission. Within each group, subgroups were identified in relation to motor activity. Each participant of the study gave voluntary informed written consent. The examination included the determination of 44 anthropometric parameters of the human body.

Results. The studied adolescents and young men were harmoniously developed,  however,  the  persons  subject  to  medical  commission, in  the  majority  had  an  asthenic  type, while the persons subject to military medical commission had normosthenic without taking into account motor activity. In the group of people with high motor activity, a strong physique was observed. The percentage of hypotrophy was higher in individuals with average motor activity in both study groups. A proportional type of fat deposition was observed in both study groups, however, in persons with average motor activity, the percentage of persons with a gynoid type of deposition was higher. Persons subject to military medical commission had higher Tanner Index scores. During the intragroup analysis, higher indicators of this index were noted in the group of people with high motor activity.

Conclusion. The results of the study conducted in groups of adolescents and young men subject to assigned medical commission and military medical commission living in the Altai Krai show the heterogeneity of the study groups. Increased motor activity contributes to the androgenization of adolescents and adolescents in general, an increase in the chest, an increase in body weight.

The aim was to investigate the presence of fat cells (adipocytes) using morphological methods in the uterus of women without signs of scarring, with well–off scars after cesarean section (CS), as well as in a group  of  patients  with  different  variants  of  atypical  placentation.

Material  and  methods.  A  retrospective histological and immunohistochemical study of the uterine wall material obtained during abdominal delivery in normal pregnancy without a previous CS in medical history (group 1, n=10), in normal pregnancy with a previous CS in anamnesis and the presence of a scar in the uterine wall (group 2, n=23) was performed, in pregnancy complicated  by  the  ingrowth  of placental  villi  (group  3,  n=22).

Results.  In  the  uteroplacental region,  the  fat component was found in all three groups. No adipocytes were found in group 1 (0%). In group 2, fields of fat cells of different sizes were found in 19 cases out of 23 studied (83%) and only in the scar zone: in serosa 40%, in the perivascular  zone 28%, among muscle bundles 15%. In the 3rd  group with the ingrowth of placental villi into the  scar zone, a “hernia” of the thinned uterine wall was detected in 68% of cases. The adipocytic component in this group was detected in 86% of cases (19 out of 22). Localization of adipocytes was observed in serosa (56%), in the perivascular zone (25%) and among muscle bundles (6%). No adipocytic component was found in the uterine wall outside the scar tissue.

Conclusion. An adipocytic component was identified, undoubtedly associated with traumatic damage to the uterus and the presence of a scar in the wall. What are the relationships between the presence of fat cells in the scar tissue and its predisposition to the pathology of ingrowth of villi is unknown and requires further research.

The widespread use of pesticides can lead to disruption of the ecological balance between the external environment and the human body, provoking the development of oxidative stress, which leads to an increase in toxic forms of damage to organs and systems of the macroorganism. The present study shows the effect of subchronic intoxication with the fungicide tiram on the morphological and functional state of gum tissues, as well as the use of plant antioxidants of vitamin C and silybum extract to stop the inflammatory process and  to increase  the regenerative potential of gum structural components.

The aim was to study of morphofuncmorphofunctional changes in gum tissue during subchronic intoxication with the fungicide tiram and correction with  vitamin  C  and  silybum  extract.

Material  and  methods.  The  experiment  was  performed  on  150  male Wistar rats, which were orally administered the fungicide thiram for 28 days, followed by antioxidant therapy. Morphofunctional changes in the mucosal epithelium and the cellular composition of the subepithelial layer were analyzed to assess the severity of inflammatory changes in histological preparations. Fibroblastic differon cells, macrophages and inflammatory cells of granulocytes and lymphocytes were differentiated by karyological signs, and the thickness of the epithelial layer, the areas occupied by the fibrous, vascular and cellular components were measured.

Results.  According  to  the  results  of  the  morphological  and  morphometric  analysis,  pathomorphological changes in the gum structure caused by pesticide intoxication were reliably proven. After the use of antioxidants,  there  was  a  significant  decrease  in  inflammatory processes  in  non-resident  cells,  the  number  of blood vessels in the lamina propria, as well as interstitial edema in it. Reparative processes were manifested by the migration of fibroblastic cells, the initiation of collagenogenesis, and an increase in the fibrous component.

Conclusion. Thus, the effect of using silybum extract and vitamin C as a means of normalizing the morphofunctional state of gum tissue after thiram intoxication has been shown.

The study of regional histotopographic features of the diaphragm in normal conditions and in various types of metastatic lesions is of practical importance in abdominal oncology when planning cytoreductive surgical interventions and diaphragmatic peritonectomy.

The aim was to study the histotopographic structure of the diaphragm in normal and peritoneal carcinomatosis.

Material and methods. 40 non-embalmed preparations of the cadaveric diaphragm were used to prepare histotopograms of their various parts. The surgical material of 77 patients who underwent cytoreductive intervention and diaphragmatic peritonectomy of various volumes was also studied and histological preparations were made. Regional histotopographic features of the diaphragm in normal and metastatic lesions were studied. A correlation analysis of the size of carcinomatous nodes and the depth of tumor invasion was carried out.

Results. It was found that the histotopographic structure in various parts of the diaphragm is normally specific and has a number of differences. Metastatic damage to the diaphragm in peritoneal carcinomatosis differs in size of tumor nodes, in depth of tumor invasion, and in combined lesion of adjacent anatomical structures. In most cases, the size of carcinomatous lesions directly correlated with the depth of tumor invasion, however, it was found that a number of large tumor nodes do not have such   a   depth   of   germination,   but   affect   only   the   superficial   layers of   the   diaphragm (peritoneum and  diaphragmatic fascia).

Conclusion. The results of studying the depth of tumor invasion, which is often associated with the size of carcinomatous nodes, can be implemented in clinical practice when planning cytoreductive surgical interventions and performing diaphragmatic peritonectomy.

The aim of the study was to determine the availability of the relationship between the morphometric dimensions of the sphenoid sinus and the nasal cavity in mature men with different types of pneumatization of sinus shpenoidalis.

Material and methods. A morphometric study of 25 skull cuts of mature men with a wound type of sinus pneumatization performed in the median plane was carried out. A morphometric template and ImageJ version 1.52u program were used to determine the height and longitudinal dimensions of the sinus, the length of the Zuckerkandl line, the thickness of the sinus walls along it, as well as a number of height and longitudinal dimensions of structures forming the walls of the nasal cavity. The Statistica 6.0 program was  used  for  statistical  processing.

Results.  Comparing  the  minimum  height  of  the  sphenoid  sinus  and  the longitudinal  dimensions  of  the  middle  nasal  concha  along  the  attachment  line  and  along  the  free  edge,  the Spearman  correlation  coefficient  has  values  of  0,57  and  0,44,  respectively;  when  comparing  the  longitudinal dimensions of the sinus with the same indicators - 0,53 / 0,56 (for the maximum length of the sinus) and 0,46 / 0,45 (for the minimum); for the Zuckerkandl line, carried out to the anterior and posterior walls of the sinus, and  the height of the piriform aperture - 0,73 and 0,63, respectively.

Conclusion. Basically, regardless of the type of pneumatization of the sinus, its dimensions are not interrelated with the longitudinal and height dimensions of the nasal cavity. A significant moderate positive correlation is observed between the size of the sinus and the length of the middle nasal concha. This implies an interconnected increase in these sizes and, as a result, obtaining the greatest room for maneuver when conducting sinus probing along the Zuckerkandl line in the case of their maximum values.

The aim was to study the reorganization of gliocytes and GFAP expression of the rat neocortex  using  histological,  immunomorphological  and  morphometric  methods  (in  particular  fractal  analysis)  after severe traumatic brain injury (STBI).

Material and methods. Modeling of STBI was performed using a patented device with a shock mechanism based on the principle of transferring kinetic energy of a falling cylindrical load. During the experiment, the rats were divided into 2 groups: main (n=30) and control (intact, n=6). The brain of rats was extracted after 1, 3, 7, 14 and 30 days after heavy traumatic brain injury. The assessment of the glia of layers III and V of the sensorimotor cortex (SMC) was carried out by analyzing histological preparations of the rat brain (stained with hematoxylin-eosin and thionin) using light microscopy, immunohistochemical reaction  to  glial  fibrillary  acid  protein  (GFAP)  and  morphometric  processing  in  the  Image  1.53  program.  Fractal analysis was performed using the FracLac 2.5 plugin to evaluate the astrocyte network. Statistical processing of the  data  obtained was  carried  out  using  nonparametric  methods  of  information  processing  of  the  application package Statistica 10.0 programs.

Results. Throughout the post-traumatic period, changes in the SMC neurons were accompanied by an increase in the numerical density of gliocytes. The maximum peak of the microglyocyte content was higher already 1 day after HTBI: by 13.4% in layer III of the SMC and by 24.2% in layer V of the SMC. The minimum indicator of the numerical density of oligodendrocytes was observed 30 days after HTBI: in layer III of the SMC by 32.2%, and in layer V of the SMC – 43.9%. 1 day after the injury, there was a statistically significant increase in the numerical density of astrocytes in layers III and V of the SMC above the control values. During 30 days, the content of gliocytes decreased: in layer III of the SMC – 23%, and in layer V of the SMC – 26.8%.  When  GFAP  was  expressed,  protoplasmic  and  fibrous  astrocytes  differing  in  body  size  and  length  of processes were found in layer III and V of the SMC. The indicators characterizing the appendages as a spatial object changed statistically significantly in comparison with the control and in the post-traumatic period between terms. The fractal dimension changed the most and a high lacunarity was observed in layer III of the SMC. For 14 days, the indicator was less than the reference value, and by this time it was already recovering in layer V of the SMC. Taken together, all this indicated a higher reactive reorganization of the processes of astrocytes of the small cell layer of the III SMC.

Conclusion. After a heavy traumatic brain injury, a heterogeneous reorganization of the neuroglial complex was observed in the sensorimotor cortex (SMC). The detected changes in the numerical density of gliocytes in layers III and V of the SMC throughout the post-traumatic period were heterochronous. Morphometric analysis data confirmed the spatial reorganization of astrocytes, active proliferation of microglyocytes and oligodendrocytes – changes that contribute to the compensatory protection of the structures of the nervous tissue of the SMC in the post-traumatic period.

Nowdays,  there  is  a  wide  variety  of  judgments  regarding  the  specific  expression  of  some forms of connexins (Cx) in the renin apparatus of the embryonic and adult kidneys. Establishing the exact intrarenal localization of Cx 40, 37, 43, 45 is a prerequisite for understanding their functional role in normal renal organogenesis,  as  well  as  in  maintaining  fluid  homeostasis  and  controlling renin  secretion.  At  8–10 weeks  of embryonic development, the expression of various Cx is observed in the epithelium of blood vessels and renal tubules, as well as in the region of the renal renin apparatus, but with different patterns of expression and intensity over time. During embryogenesis, the expression of Cx 40 is higher than that of Cx 43, 37, and 45. In the postnatal period, the expression of Cx 40 decreases, while the expression of others increases. Cx 40 is involved in the  formation  of  the renin  apparatus  in  the  developing  kidney,  while  Cx 37,  Cx 43,  and  Cx 45  are  involved  in signaling important for postnatal maintenance of kidney function and blood pressure control. Knockout Cx 45 is a lethal mutation that leads to impaired differentiation of smooth muscle tissue of arterioles. On the contrary, the deletion of individual genes Cx 37, 40 and 43 has little effect on renal organogenesis, probably due to the redundancy  and  interchangeability  of  various  connexin  isoforms.  Experimental  studies  in  the  adult  kidney demonstrate  that arterial endothelial  cells express Cx 40  and Cx 37 and, to a lesser extent, Cx 43, while smooth muscle  cells express Cx 45. The cells of the renin apparatus are characterized by the expression of Cx 37, Cx 40, Cx 43 and Cx 45, with the highest content of Cx 40, especially in juxtaglomerular cells. Adequate and coordinated work of Cx is crucial for the regulation of renal hemodynamics and renin secretion in nephrology. The use of specific connexin-mimetic peptides may lead to the development of more effective methods for controlling renin secretion.

The article presents an analysis of the main directions of transformations of the organs of the reproductive system during the evolution of vertebrates at various levels of the hierarchical organization of vertebrates - cellular, tissue, organ, organism, population. During the evolution of vertebrates, gonadal oligomerization occurred, a decrease in the number of hermaphrodite species, a decrease in the relative mass of gonads in the body, and a transition from isogamy to heterogamy (oogamy) was observed. In vertebrates, 4 types of structural and functional organization of male gonads have been formed: follicular type, follicular-cystic type, tubular-cystic type, tubular type. In representatives of different classes of vertebrates, the transformation of the ovaries proceeded in different directions. Large, grape-shaped ovaries have evolved in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and cloacal mammals. These ovaries, just before the breeding season, can occupy almost the entire abdominal cavity. The ovaries of placental mammals are small in size, their shape is most often oval, the surface is smooth. One  of  the  directions  of  the  evolutionary  transformation  of  the  gonads  was  the  compartmentalization  of  the structures of the male and female gonads, while there was a structural and topographic division into the actual gonads and the genital tract, which were formed on the basis of the structures of the primary kidney. Higher vertebrates have well-developed accessory sex glands. In the gonads, there was a clear topographical distinction between endocrine and germinal structures. Against the background of an increase in the number of species with internal  fertilization,  against  the  background  of  the  formation  of  a  complexly  organized vagina  and  uterus  in female mammals, the formation and complication of the copulatory organs of males occurred.

The article describes the main stages of the life  path and scientific creativity of Doctor of Medical Sciences, professor, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Boris Aleksandrovich  Nikityuk  (1933–1998),  who  made  a  significant  contribution  to  the  development  of  domestic  human anatomy. Scientific interests of B.A. Nikityuk were diverse. He conducted research in the field of developmental and environmental anatomy, sports morphology, medical and biological anthropology. His studies in the field of developmental genetics are widely known. Boris Aleksandrovich was one of the most successful developers of the acceleration  doctrine,  formulated  its  laws,  developed  methods  and approaches for determining biological age. He was the first to formulate the basic laws of growth and development. The contribution of B.A. Nikityuk is generally recognized in the development of constitutional science. He formulated ideas about the local constitution, the reactivity of structures in connection with the characteristics of growth and development. The result of the  valiant  work  of  Professor  B.A.  Nikityuk  became  the  founder  of  a  scientific  school  of  anatomists.  Boris  Alexandrovich's students continue to develop his scientific ideas up to this day.