This review contains literature data covering the structure and functions of the subfornical organ (SFO). The SFO belongs to the sensory group of formations located around the III and IV ventricles and constituting the circumventricular system of the brain. Despite its small size, the SFO has four departments, which differ from each other in the features of cyto-, myelo-, and angioarchitectonics. The structural features of the blood-brain barrier in the SFO allow many substances to directly contact with its cellular elements. A distinctive feature of the SFO is that circulating substances can stay in the capillaries for an unusually long time. Perivascular spaces, located around type I and III capillaries, penetrate the organ like thin channels and provide the substances in the interstitial fluid with a large surface area for interacting with the receptor field. A characteristic feature of the SFO is tanycytes, whose intertwining processes extend throughout the organ and form multiple contacts with neurons and the vascular bed. SFO is an important link in the regulation of homeostasis. It takes part in the regulation of blood pressure and drinking behavior, controls the water and electrolyte balance and energy metabolism, and also acts as an important link in neuro-immune interactions. Such structural and functional features of the SFO make it a promising object of neurobiological research.

Acute herpes simplex virus infection in pregnant women results in intrauterine infection of the fetus in 45–50% of cases, thus being the cause of septic complications and severe somatic and neurological disorders in the newborn.
The aim of the study was to investigate the placentas of new mothers with newly diagnosed herpes simplex virus type 2 infection (HSV-2) using histological and immunochemical methods.
Material and methods. This histological study included 10 placentas of new mothers after operative delivery by caesarean section with newly diagnosed HSV-2 infection. The comparison group (control) consisted of 10 placentas of women with a physiological pregnancy. Histological sections of the placenta were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, Giemsa's solution and Picro-Mallory staining. Identification of the pro- and antiinflammatory phenotype of macrophages (CD68, CD163), subpopulations of CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes, TLR4 receptor expression was performed by immunohistochemical method using specific antibodies. Quantification of the cell population and TLR4 receptors was performed morphometrically. The data obtained were statistically analysed using MS Excel (2016) and SPSS Statistics 17.0.
Results. Morphological manifestations of acute herpes simplex virus infection were combined inflammatory and compensatory in nature in the third trimester of pregnancy. The histological picture of the fetal part of the placenta demonstrated a decreased number of M2 (antiinflammatory) macrophages and an increased number of M1 (pro-inflammatory) macrophages. The imbalance between CD163+ and CD68+ profiles of placental macrophages with the numerical predominance of the latter evidenced a pronounced cellular immune response; this, in turn, was supported by intense TLR4 immunopositive staining of the fetal part of the placenta. There was perivillous fibrin deposition of varying degrees, villus agglutination, and necrosis of trophoblast cells associated with a relatively small population of CD4+ and CD8+. Villitis of viral etiology was characterized by destructive infiltration of maternal CD8+ T-lymphocytes penetrating the chorionic villi, combined with activated macrophages in the villi of the fetal part of the placenta. Modifications in the proportion of immune cells during HSV-2 infection supported cytotoxic and autoimmune reactions in the placenta in response to HSV-2 introduction.
Conclusion. The results obtained evidence the development of a pronounced immunopathological process in the tissues of the fetal part of the placenta, which results in the decreased protective and compensatory properties of the placenta and increases risk of perinatal complications.

Currently, in humans, the ratio of the index and ring fingers (2D:4D ratio) determines the morphological type of the hand: type 1 or radial (2D>4D), type 2 or neutral (2D=4D), type 3 or ulnar (2D<4D). However, the above differences do not allow for morphological verification of the hand shape as a whole.
The aim of the study was to inspect the hand shapes depending on its morphology based on radiographical images with geometric morphometric methods.
Material and methods. Geometric morphometry included an analysis of the right hand shape described by 20 landmarks located on digital radiographic images (anteriorposterior projection) in 50 males and 50 females. Each hand was classified according to whether the index finger was longer, equal to, or shorter than the ring finger by visual assessment.
Results. The study revealed differences between the hand shapes in the transverse direction, namely, the hands of the ulnar type (U) were wider, while the hands of the radial type (R) were narrower. The hands of neutral shape, unlike the other two types, were more oval in shape. In average, the hand shape depended on the morphological type. The most pronounced shape transformations were due to the geometry of the metacarpal bones in the transverse direction, and due to the geometry of the II, IV and V fingers in the longitudinal direction. Intergroup differences in width were revealed between the group of hands of radial (R)-neutral (N) types and ulnar (U) type, and in length between the group of hands of radial (R)-ulnar (U) types and neutral (N) type. The allometry of the hand shape was minimal.
Conclusion. The results of the study demonstrate the potentials of geometric morphometry for analysis of the human hand shapes and their variability depending on the morphological type.

The aim of the study was to analyse histologically and morphometrically the peribiliary glands of the extrahepatic biliary tract in the elderly and long-living people.
Material and methods. The study included wholemounts of the gallbladder, the cystic, hepatic and common bile ducts obtained from the corpses of both sexes aged 22 to 35 years (n=16) and older than 76 years (n=39). Macro-microscopy was used to evaluate the number, localization, sizes and shape of the glands, the area of the lumen of the excretory duct orifices, the area of the initial section of the glands, the number of initial (terminal) parts and the proportion of epithelial parenchyma in their composition.
Results. With age, there is a decreased proportion of "complexly branched" glands with a significant number of initial sections and excretory ducts of the 1st order. The proportion of "simple" glands, with one initial section increases to 70.2–78.3% in the senile age, while it is 41.0–52.1% in people of mature age. In long-living people, there is an increased number (up to 70–85%) of glands with ampullar extensions of the common excretory duct. The total number, density of gland localization, the length and width of the initial section of the peribiliary glands tend to decrease from the period of mature age to longevity. In senile age, the size and quantitative parameters of the glands stabilize, and do not modify in long-living people.
Conclusion. The results of the morphological analysis demonstrate that there is no progression of involutive changes in the peribiliary glands of the extrahepatic biliary tract from senile age to the period of longevity. In some cases, long-living individuals manifest compensatory-adaptive reactions, such as an increased severity of the epithelial parenchymal component in the composition of the glands and an increased proportion of glands with an ampullar expansion of the common excretory duct.

The aim of the study was to specify the age and gender features of the ascending and descending colon location in children and adolescents based on computed tomography scans.
Material and methods. The study included computed tomography scans of the abdomen of 75 children without visible pathology of the abdominal organs. All human subjects were divided into 4 age groups: the period of early childhood, the period of the first childhood, the period of the second childhood, adolescence. They were exposed to 16- slice computed tomography followed by analysis specifying distances between the ascending and descending colons and the median sagittal plane. The data obtained were subjected to variational statistical processing, the mean value (M), standard error (m) and the significance of differences according to Student's t-test were defined.
Results. The results obtained demonstrated that the maximum values of the distances between the ascending colon and the median sagittal plane were determined at the LIII–LV levels in children of the 1st group, at the LV level in children of the 2nd group, at the LIV level in children of the 3rd group and at the LIII–LIV levels in children the 4th group. The minimum values of the studied parameters were found at the LI level in boys of the 1st group and girls of the 2nd group. The minimum value of the parameter was defined at the LII level in the rest of the examined children. The maximum distances between the descending colon and the median sagittal plane were defined at the LI–LII levels in children of the 1st and 2nd groups, and at the LII–LIII levels in children of the 3rd and 4th groups. The minimum value of the parameter was at the LV level in the examined children of groups 1 and 2, and at the LI and LV levels in the examined children of groups 3 and 4.
Conclusion. A significant increase in the average distance from the median sagittal plane to the ascending and descending colons was detected in each group compared to the previous one. Significant differences in the distance from the median sagittal plane to the ascending and descending colons among girls and boys of the same age have not been revealed in any of the age groups.

The aim of research was to study morphological features of the synovial membrane and articular cartilage of rats under simulated adjuvant arthritis and application of allogeneic biomaterial.
Material and methods. To simulate rheumatoid arthritis, 12 white outbred female rats were injected 100 μl of complete Freund's adjuvant into the plantar surface of the hind paw. In 7 days, 5 mg of the allogeneic biomaterial “Regeneration stimulator” dissolved in physiological solution was injected into the periarticular bursae of the right knee joint and surrounding tissues in the rats of the main experimental group (n=6). Saline solution was injected into animals of the main control group (n=6). Intact rats (n=6) were included in the intact control group. All the animals were withdrawn from the experiment in 37 days after the onset of the experiment. The knee joints of rats were examined using standard histological, morphometric and statistical methods.
Results. Animals of the main control group manifested signs of degenerative changes of varying degrees in the articular apparatus. Proliferation of the synovial cells and tissue hyperplasia were detected in the synovial membrane, these leading to the formation of pannus. There was disorganization of the connective tissue: they were thinned, the fibrous layer was separated, the cartilage and bone tissue were destructed. In animals of the experimental group, there were no signs of tissue hyperplasia and edema, pronounced pannus were not detected after the introduction of the allogeneic biomaterial in the synovial membrane. Mild signs of arthritis manifested as slightly increased processes of the synovial cell proliferation and moderate perivascular infiltration with cellular elements were detected in 2 rats. There were no changes in the structure of the cartilage and bone in the knee joint.
Conclusion. Intraarticular injection of the allogeneic biomaterial "Regeneration Stimulator" in rats with simulated autoimmune rheumatoid arthritis is accompanied by a decreased external manifestations of a generalized inflammatory process in the knee joints, and by a decreased inflammation and degenerative changes in the articular apparatus at the tissue level. Notably, the structures of the synovial membrane, the articular cartilage of the knee joint and the underlying subchondral bone are preserved compared with animals of the control group.

The aim of research was to study the distribution of mast cell populations in the lungs and spleen depending on their expression of proteases in normal conditions and different periods of simulated hypoxic hypoxia.
Material and methods. Hypoxic hypoxia was modeled on 87 outbred male rats using 200 liter chambers. The animals were under experimental conditions for four months. Rats were removed from the experiment after 30, 60, 90 and 120 days. After the animals were removed from the experiment, the lungs and the spleen were removed and fixed in 10% neutral buffer solution of Labiko formalin. Lung and spleen preparations were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and according to Van Gieson. For immunohistochemical studies, a panel of monoclonal antibodies was used: Anti-Mast Cell Tryptase antibody, Anti-Mast Cell Chymase antibody.
Results. When modeling hypoxia in the structures of the lungs at the terms of 30 and 60 days, the content of predominantly tryptase-positive cells increased, and by the 90th and 120th days, the content of chymase-positive cells increased. By the end of the experimental exposure, the number of tryptase-positive cells increased by 3 times, and chymase-positive – by 7,7 times compared with the control. As the duration of the experiment increased, the presence of tryptase-positive cells in the spleen increased by 3,5 times, chymase-positive cells – by 7 times in the structures of the red and white pulp.
Conclusion. During the formation of chronic hypoxic hypoxia in the body of laboratory animals, there is a redistribution of mast cells expressing tryptase and chymase. The most significant increase in the number of chymase-positive mast cells was noted both in the lungs and in the spleen.

The aim of the study was to comprehensively assess histological parameters of the hypothalamic neurosecretory and immune systems in pregnant rats exposed to passive smoking and their offspring.
Material and methods. We studied morphological and immunological parameters of pregnant Wistar rats exposed to passive smoking and those of the control group, as well as their offspring. The obtained material was processed using histological, immunohistochemical, morphometric and immunological methods.
Results. The results obtained demonstrated that in rats exposed to passive smoking, the sizes of neurosecretory cells (NSCs) of the supraoptic (SO) and paraventricular (PV) nuclei of the hypothalamus increased, the number of p53 positive NSCs increased, and bcl-2 protein expression decreased. Tobacco smoking caused formation of a proaptotic dominant in the neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. Passive smoking led to a decreased body weight, a decreased number of thymocytes and myelokaryocytes in pregnant rats. In young rats born from the animals exposed to passive smoking, there was a slowdown in the processes of postnatal differentiation of the adrenal cortex (fascicular zone) with preservation of the extended zone of the fetal cortex. Notably, histo- and morphogenesis both in the organs of the primary (thymus) and secondary (spleen, lymph nodes) links of immunogenesis were delayed. In such young rats, a decreased body weight, thymus, number of thymocytes and splenocytes were recorded.
Conclusion. Total results of the study evidence that passive smoking causes immunosuppressive changes in pregnant rats and their offspring combined with delayed postnatal histogenesis and proapoptotic manifestations in the nonapeptide-dergic hypothalamicpituitary adrenocortical system, which can be regarded as an unfavorable factor in the implementation of the neuroendocrine regulative mechanisms of adaptogenesis processes.

The aim of the study was to investigate morphometric parameters of the parotid gland in various shapes of the facial and brain skull.
Material and methods. The study included cadaveric biomaterial obtained from individuals of both sexes aged 48 to 73 years. There were investigated 120 human head organcomplexes containing 240 parotid glands. The samples were used to measure the upper height of the face and its width, the longitudinal and transverse diameters of the skull, and to calculate the values of the upper facial and transverse longitudinal indexes. Then the soft tissues were dissected in layers, and the parotid glands and adjacent neurovascular formations were isolated. Morphometric parameters of the parotid glands were processed statistically.
Results. It was found that the vertical size of the parotid gland correlated with the upper facial index, and the sagittal size correlated with the transverse-longitudinal index. Statistically significant relationships between the upper facial, transverse-longitudinal indices and the shape of the parotid gland were not recorded.
Conclusion. The study revealed an average positive correlation between the morphometric parameters of the parotid gland and the upper facial and transverse longitudinal indices. The results of the study complement the available data on the anatomy of the parotid gland and can be used in planning surgical interventions, as well as in interpreting the results of diagnostic radiation studies.

The aim of the study was to investigate morphofunctional modifications in neurons, glial cells and synaptic terminals in the sensorimotor cortex of the brain in rats after severe traumatic brain injury (STBI).
Material and methods. STBI simulation in white rats (main group, n=30) was performed on a device with a special shock mechanism. Intact animals (n=6) were included in the control group. The sensorimotor cortex (SMC) of the brain in rats was studied histomorphologically on sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin and thionin according to Nissl. Synaptophysin and GFAP were detected immunohistochemically, then morphometry was performed. On serial frontal sections of the SMC, neurons, neuroglia, and interneuronal synapses were studied in animals of the control group and in animals exposed to STBI in 1, 3, 7, 14, and 30 days after STBI simulation. The number density of neurons, neuroglia, and synaptic terminals was determined per a unit area of the section of layers I (terminals only), III, and V of the cerebral SMC. Statistical hypotheses were tested using nonparametric methods in the Statistica 10.0 program.
Results. In animals of the control group, typical normochromic pyramidal neurons predominated, synaptic terminals were clearly verified; this was combined with unaltered neuropil. In animals exposed to STBI, there were signs of tinctorial, hydropic, dehydration and necrobiotic changes in neurons, reactive astrogliosis, fields of "loss" of neurons appeared; the overall numerical density of neurons and synapses decreased. The maximally increased content of pycnomorphic neurons was detected in 1 day after STBI (in layer III of the SMC, by 11.6%; in layer V of the SMC, by 18.5%). The peak in the number density of shadow cells and hyperchromic non-wrinkled neurons was noted in 3 days. The numerical density of synaptic terminals in different layers of the SMC decreased by 1.5-2 times. The altered balance of the destruction and restoration processes of the synaptic pool after STBI was evidenced by statistically significant data on the decreased and increased numerical density of terminals during 30 days of the study. There was no complete recovery of the studied parameters of neurons and synapses to control values within 30 days.
Conclusion. The SMC of the brain in rats remains functioning after STBI; this occurs in the context of long-term preservation of reversibly and irreversibly damaged neurons, reactive neurogliosis, and permanent reorganization of interneuronal relationships due to activated reparative neuro- and synaptic plasticity. The data obtained will specify reorganization of the components of various neuronal complexes of the SMC (layers I, III, and V) after STBI.

The paper highlights the main stages of life and scientific work of the prominent Russian scientist Lev Vladimirovich Polezhaev (1910–2000), who significantly contributed to the development of issues of individual development and regeneration. The authors discuss main trends of Polezhaev’s research, briefly analyze his studies on morphogenesis, issues of physiological and reparative regeneration of various organs and tissues – skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue, bone tissue, structures of the maxillary system, organs of the central nervous system, limb regeneration in amphibians, as well as regeneration of the nervous tissue of various vertebrates is given.

The paper considers the influence of life circumstances and people of different professions on the development of Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov’s personality as an outstanding scientist, anatomist and surgeon. As a child, Nikolai Ivanovich lived in quite a prosperous family to pay for the worthy education for their children. Respectale teachers of medicine were invited to the Pirogovs' house such as G.M. Berezkin and A.M. Klaus. But the most significant figure for Pirogov as a child was the family doctor Efrem Osipovich Mukhin who was a Professor of anatomy and physiology at the Imperial Moscow University. So at the age of 14 Nikolai Ivanovich became a student of that University being under the influence of such scientists as Yu.Kh. Loder, M.Ya. Mudrov, and F.A. Hilderbrandt. In 1828 Pirogov finished the Faculty of Medicine and entered the Imperial Moscow University of Dorpat where he studied under the famous surgeon, Professor I.F. Moyer who became his mentor and favourite teacher. Further improvement of skills and mastery acquisition took place at the University of Berlin in 1833 under the influence of the anatomist F. Schlemm, the physiologist I.M. Muller, the preparator Mrs. Vogelsang, the surgeons K. Grefe, I. Dieffenbach, J.N. Rusta, and K.I.M. Langenbeck. Also, Nikolai Ivanovich was lucky to cooperate and learn from the famous French scientists like Velpo, Lisfranc, Larrey, Jaubert, Amyusse. Life circumstances such as complicated relationships with colleagues due to the challenges in organizing medical care during wars and epidemics dramatically influenced Pirogov’s development as a medical scientist. Thus, the well-deserved immortal fame of the medical science genius Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov obtained was owing to his teachers, mentors and the environment. As demonstrated by N.I. Pirogov’s life, both a person and their teachers look for one another especially when the student reveals their talent, desire for knowledge, skills, and the ability to work hard. The authors devoted this paper to the people who influenced the scientific views development of N.I. Pirogov, an outstanding scientist, surgeon and anatomist.